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  • Improvement in disability after alemtuzumab treatment of multiple sclerosis is associated with neuroprotective autoimmunity. 20659956

    Treatment of early relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis with the lymphocyte-depleting humanized monoclonal antibody alemtuzumab (Campath [registered trade mark]) significantly reduced the risk of relapse and accumulation of disability compared with interferon beta-1a in a phase 2 trial [Coles et al., (Alemtuzumab vs. interferon beta-1a in early multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1786-801)]. Patients treated with alemtuzumab experienced an improvement in disability at 6 months that was sustained for at least 3 years. In contrast, those treated with interferon beta-1a steadily accumulated disability. Here, by post hoc subgroup analyses of the CAMMS223 trial, we show that among participants with no clinical disease activity immediately before treatment, or any clinical or radiological disease activity on-trial, disability improved after alemtuzumab but not following interferon beta-1a. This suggests that disability improvement after alemtuzumab is not solely attributable to its anti-inflammatory effect. So we hypothesized that lymphocytes, reconstituting after alemtuzumab, permit or promote brain repair. Here we show that after alemtuzumab, and only when specifically stimulated with myelin basic protein, peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures produced increased concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, platelet-derived growth factor and ciliary neurotrophic factor. Analysis by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction of cell separations showed that the increased production of ciliary neurotrophic factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor after alemtuzumab is attributable to increased production by T cells. Media from these post-alemtuzumab peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures promoted survival of rat neurones and increased axonal length in vitro, effects that were partially reversed by neutralizing antibodies against brain-derived nerve growth factor and ciliary neurotrophic factor. This conditioned media also enhanced oligodendrocyte precursor cell survival, maturation and myelination. Taken together, the clinical analyses and laboratory findings support the interpretation that improvement in disability after alemtuzumab may result, in part, from neuroprotection associated with increased lymphocytic delivery of neurotrophins to the central nervous system.
    Document Type:
    Reference
    Product Catalog Number:
    AB5320
    Product Catalog Name:
    Anti-NG2 Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan Antibody

  • Striatal oligodendrogliogenesis and neuroblast recruitment are increased in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease. 23623813

    The subventricular zone (SVZ) is one of the two major neurogenic regions in the adult mammalian brain. Its close proximity to the striatum suggests that a cell-based therapeutic strategy for the treatment of Huntington's disease (HD) is possible. To achieve this, it is important to understand how adult cell production, migration and differentiation may be altered in the HD brain. In this study, we quantified the number of adult-born striatal cells and characterized their fate in the R6/2 transgenic mouse model of HD. We found that the number of new striatal cells was approximately two-fold greater in R6/2 vs. wild type mice, while SVZ cell proliferation was not affected. Using cell-type specific markers, we demonstrated that the majority of new striatal cells were mature oligodendrocytes or oligodendroglial precursors that were intrinsic to the striatum. We also detected a significant increase in the number of migrating neuroblasts that appeared to be recruited from the SVZ to the striatum. However, these neuroblasts did not mature into neurons and most were lost between 1 and 2 weeks of cell age. Crossing the R6/2 mice with mice the over-expressing brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the striatum increased the numbers of neuroblasts that survived to 2 weeks, but did not promote their differentiation. Together, our data indicate that the potential treatment of HD based on manipulating endogenous progenitor cells should take into consideration the apparent enhancement in striatal oligodendrogliogenesis and the limited ability of recruited SVZ neuroblasts to survive long-term and differentiate in the diseased striatum.
    Document Type:
    Reference
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    Multiple
    Product Catalog Name:
    Multiple

  • Crebinostat: a novel cognitive enhancer that inhibits histone deacetylase activity and modulates chromatin-mediated neuroplasticity. 22771460

    Long-term memory formation is known to be critically dependent upon de novo gene expression in the brain. As a consequence, pharmacological enhancement of the transcriptional processes mediating long-term memory formation provides a potential therapeutic strategy for cognitive disorders involving aberrant neuroplasticity. Here we focus on the identification and characterization of small molecule inhibitors of histone deacetylases (HDACs) as enhancers of CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein)-regulated transcription and modulators of chromatin-mediated neuroplasticity. Using a CREB reporter gene cell line, we screened a library of small molecules structurally related to known HDAC inhibitors leading to the identification of a probe we termed crebinostat that produced robust activation of CREB-mediated transcription. Further characterization of crebinostat revealed its potent inhibition of the deacetylase activity of recombinant class I HDACs 1, 2, 3, and class IIb HDAC6, with weaker inhibition of the class I HDAC8 and no significant inhibition of the class IIa HDACs 4, 5, 7, and 9. In cultured mouse primary neurons, crebinostat potently induced acetylation of both histone H3 and histone H4 as well as enhanced the expression of the CREB target gene Egr1 (early growth response 1). Using a hippocampus-dependent, contextual fear conditioning paradigm, mice systemically administered crebinostat for a ten day time period exhibited enhanced memory. To gain insight into the molecular mechanisms of memory enhancement by HDAC inhibitors, whole genome transcriptome profiling of cultured mouse primary neurons treated with crebinostat, combined with bioinformatic analyses of CREB-target genes, was performed revealing a highly connected protein-protein interaction network reflecting modules of genes important to synaptic structure and plasticity. Consistent with these findings, crebinostat treatment increased the density of synapsin-1 punctae along dendrites in cultured neurons. Finally, crebinostat treatment of cultured mouse primary neurons was found to upregulate Bdnf (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) and Grn (granulin) and downregulate Mapt (tau) gene expression-genes implicated in aging-related cognitive decline and cognitive disorders. Taken together, these results demonstrate that crebinostat provides a novel probe to modulate chromatin-mediated neuroplasticity and further suggests that pharmacological optimization of selective of HDAC inhibitors may provide an effective therapeutic approach for human cognitive disorders. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Cognitive Enhancers'.
    Document Type:
    Reference
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  • TrkB signaling directs the incorporation of newly generated periglomerular cells in the adult olfactory bulb. 23843518

    In the adult rodent brain, the olfactory bulb (OB) is continuously supplied with new neurons which survival critically depends on their successful integration into pre-existing networks. Yet, the extracellular signals that determine the selection which neurons will be ultimately incorporated into these circuits are largely unknown. Here, we show that immature neurons express the catalytic form of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor TrkB [full-length TrkB (TrkB-FL)] only after their arrival in the OB, at the time when integration commences. To unravel the role of TrkB signaling in newborn neurons, we conditionally ablated TrkB-FL in mice via Cre expression in adult neural stem and progenitor cells. TrkB-deficient neurons displayed a marked impairment in dendritic arborization and spine growth. By selectively manipulating the signaling pathways initiated by TrkB in vivo, we identified the transducers Shc/PI3K to be required for dendritic growth, whereas the activation of phospholipase C-γ was found to be responsible for spine formation. Furthermore, long-term genetic fate mapping revealed that TrkB deletion severely compromised the survival of new dopaminergic neurons, leading to a substantial reduction in the overall number of adult-generated periglomerular cells (PGCs), but not of granule cells (GCs). Surprisingly, this loss of dopaminergic PGCs was mirrored by a corresponding increase in the number of calretinin+ PGCs, suggesting that distinct subsets of adult-born PGCs may respond differentially to common extracellular signals. Thus, our results identify TrkB signaling to be essential for balancing the incorporation of defined classes of adult-born PGCs and not GCs, reflecting their different mode of integration in the OB.
    Document Type:
    Reference
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  • Age-related decrease in cerebrovascular-derived neuroprotective proteins: effect of acetaminophen. 22944728

    As the population ages, the need for effective methods to maintain brain function in older adults is increasingly pressing. Vascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders commonly co-occur in older persons. Cerebrovascular products contribute to the neuronal milieu and have important consequences for neuronal viability. In this regard vascular derived neuroprotective proteins, Such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide (PACAP) are important for maintaining neuronal viability, especially in the face of injury and disease. The objective of this study is to measure and compare levels of VEGF, PEDF and PACAP released from isolated brain microvessels of Fischer 344 rats at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. Addition of acetaminophen to isolated brain microvessels is employed to determine whether this drug affects vascular expression of these neuroprotective proteins. Experiments on cultured brain endothelial cells are performed to explore the mechanisms/mediators that regulate the effect of acetaminophen on endothelial cells. The data indicate cerebrovascular expression of VEGF, PEDF and PACAP significantly decreases with age. The age-associated decrease in VEGF and PEDF is ameliorated by addition of acetaminophen to isolated brain microvessels. Also, release of VEGF, PEDF, and PACAP from cultured brain endothelial cells decreases with exposure to the oxidant stressor menadione. Acetaminophen treatment upregulates VEGF, PEDF and PACAP in brain endothelial cells exposed to oxidative stress. The effect of acetaminophen on cultured endothelial cells is in part inhibited by the selective thrombin inhibitor hirudin. The results of this study suggest that acetaminophen may be a useful agent for preserving cerebrovascular function. If a low dose of acetaminophen can counteract the decrease in vascular-derived neurotrophic factors evoked by age and oxidative stress, this drug might be useful for improving brain function in the elderly.
    Document Type:
    Reference
    Product Catalog Number:
    MAB374
    Product Catalog Name:
    Anti-Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Antibody, clone 6C5

  • Tapered progesterone withdrawal promotes long-term recovery following brain trauma. 16797538

    We previously demonstrated that after traumatic brain injury (TBI), acute progesterone withdrawal (AW) causes an increase in anxiety behaviors and cerebro-cellular inflammation compared to tapered progesterone withdrawal (TW). Our current study investigates the behavioral and cellular effects of AW two weeks after termination of treatments to determine the longer-term influence of withdrawal after injury. Adult, male Sprague-Dawley rats received either bilateral frontal cortex contusion (L) or sham (S) surgery. Rats were injected at 1 and 6 h post-injury, then every 24 h for six days. Vehicle (V)-treated rats were given 9 injections of 22.5% cyclodextrin, whereas AW rats received 9 injections of 16 mg/kg progesterone and TW rats received 7 injections of P at 16 mg/kg, followed by one at 8 mg/kg and one at 4 mg/kg. On day 8, sensory neglect and locomotor activity tests were initiated. Animals were killed 22 days post-TBI and the brains prepared for either molecular or histological analysis. Western blotting revealed increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) in TW vs. AW animals. P53 was increased in VL animals, whereas all progesterone-treated groups were equivalent to shams. TW animals had markedly decreased sensory neglect compared to AW animals and increased center time in locomotor activity assays. In addition, lesion reconstruction revealed a decreased lesion size for TWL over AWL over VL animals. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunofluorescent staining followed this pattern as well. In conclusion, after TBI, AW affects select behaviors and molecular markers in the chronic recovery period.
    Document Type:
    Reference
    Product Catalog Number:
    AB1534
    Product Catalog Name:
    Anti-Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Antibody

  • Failure of axonal transport induces a spatially coincident increase in astrocyte BDNF prior to synapse loss in a central target. 23159315

    Failure of anterograde transport to distal targets in the brain is a common feature of neurodegenerative diseases. We have demonstrated in rodent models of glaucoma, the most common optic neuropathy, early loss of anterograde transport along the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) projection to the superior colliculus (SC) is retinotopic and followed by a period of persistence of RGC axon terminals and synapses through unknown molecular pathways. Here we use the DBA/2J mouse model of hereditary glaucoma and an acute rat model to demonstrate that retinotopically focal transport deficits in the SC are accompanied by a spatially coincident increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), especially in hypertrophic astrocytes. These neurochemical changes occur prior to loss of RGC synapses in the DBA/2J SC. In contrast to BDNF protein, levels of Bdnf mRNA decreased with transport failure, even as mRNA encoding synaptic structures remained unchanged. In situ hybridization signal for Bdnf mRNA was the strongest in SC neurons, and labeling for the immature precursor pro-BDNF was very limited. Subcellular fractionation of SC indicated that membrane-bound BDNF decreased with age in the DBA/2J, while BDNF released from vesicles remained high. These results suggest that in response to diminished axonal function, activated astrocytes in the brain may sequester mature BDNF released from target neurons to counter stressors that otherwise would challenge survival of projection synapses.
    Document Type:
    Reference
    Product Catalog Number:
    MAB360
    Product Catalog Name:
    Anti-Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Antibody, clone GA5

  • Matrix metalloproteinase-9 contributes to kindled seizure development in pentylenetetrazole-treated mice by converting pro-BDNF to mature BDNF in the hippocampus. 21900575

    Recurrent seizure activity has been shown to induce a variety of permanent structural changes in the brain. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) function to promote neuronal plasticity, primarily through cleavage of extracellular matrix proteins. Here, we investigated the role of MMP-9 in the development of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced kindled seizure in mice. Repeated treatment with PTZ (40 mg/kg) produced kindled seizure, which was accompanied by enhanced MMP-9 activity and expression in the hippocampus. No change in MMP-9 activity was observed in the hippocampi of mice with generalized tonic seizure following single administration of PTZ (60 mg/kg). MMP-9 colocalized with the neuronal marker NeuN and the glial marker GFAP in the dentate gyrus of the kindled mouse hippocampus. Coadministration of diazepam or MK-801 with PTZ inhibited the development of kindling and the increased MMP-9 levels in the hippocampus. Marked suppression of kindled seizure progression in response to repeated PTZ treatment was observed in MMP-9((-/-)) mice compared with wild-type mice, an observation that was accompanied by decreased hippocampal levels of mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Microinjecting the BDNF scavenger TrkB-Fc into the right ventricle before each PTZ treatment significantly suppressed the development of kindling in wild-type mice, whereas no effect was observed in MMP-9((-/-)) mice. On the other hand, bilateral injections of pro-BDNF into the hippocampal dentate gyrus significantly enhanced kindling in wild-type mice but not MMP-9((-/-)) mice. These findings suggest that MMP-9 is involved in the progression of behavioral phenotypes in kindled mice because of conversion of pro-BDNF to mature BDNF in the hippocampus.
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    Reference
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    Multiple

  • Neuroprotective effects of oligodendrocyte progenitor cell transplantation in premature rat brain following hypoxic-ischemic injury. 25790286

    Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) is a common ischemic brain injury in premature infants for which there is no effective treatment. The objective of this study was to determine whether transplanted mouse oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) have neuroprotective effects in a rat model of PVL. Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) was induced in 3-day-old rat pups by left carotid artery ligation, followed by exposure to 6% oxygen for 2.5 h. Animals were assigned to OPC transplantation or sham control groups and injected with OPCs or PBS, respectively, and sacrificed up to 6 weeks later for immunohistochemical analysis to investigate the survival and differentiation of transplanted OPCs. Apoptosis was evaluated by double immunolabeling of brain sections for caspase-3 and neuronal nuclei (NeuN), while proliferation was assessed using a combination of anti-Nestin and -bromodeoxyuridine antibodies. The expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Bcl-2 was examined 7 days after OPC transplantation. The Morris water maze was used to test spatial learning and memory. The results showed that transplanted OPCs survived and formed a myelin sheath, and stimulated BDNF and Bcl-2 expression and the proliferation of neural stem cells (NSC), while inhibiting HI-induced neuronal apoptosis relative to control animals. Moreover, deficits in spatial learning and memory resulting from HI were improved by OPC transplantation. These results demonstrate an important neuroprotective role for OPCs that can potentially be exploited in cell-based therapeutic approaches to minimize HI-induced brain injury.
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  • GABA(B) receptor activation triggers BDNF release and promotes the maturation of GABAergic synapses. 19759312

    GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult brain, has recently emerged as an important signal in network development. Most of the trophic functions of GABA have been attributed to depolarization of the embryonic and neonatal neurons via the activation of ionotropic GABA(A) receptors. Here we demonstrate a novel mechanism by which endogenous GABA selectively regulates the development of GABAergic synapses in the developing brain. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings on newborn mouse hippocampi lacking functional GABA(B) receptors (GABA(B)-Rs) and time-lapse fluorescence imaging on cultured hippocampal neurons expressing GFP-tagged brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), we found that activation of metabotropic GABA(B) receptors (GABA(B)-Rs) triggers secretion of BDNF and promotes the development of perisomatic GABAergic synapses in the newborn mouse hippocampus. Because activation of GABA(B)-Rs occurs during the characteristic ongoing physiological network-driven synaptic activity present in the developing hippocampus, our results reveal a new mechanism by which synaptic activity can modulate the development of local GABAergic synaptic connections in the developing brain.
    Document Type:
    Reference
    Product Catalog Number:
    Multiple
    Product Catalog Name:
    Multiple