05-321 Sigma-AldrichAnti-Phosphotyrosine Antibody, clone 4G10®

Cross-correlation of super-resolution images gathered from point localizations allows for robust quantification of protein co-distributions in chemically fixed cells. Here this is extended to dynamic systems through an analysis that quantifies the steady-state cross-correlation between spectrally distinguishable probes. This methodology is used to quantify the co-distribution of several mobile membrane proteins in both vesicles and live cells, including Lyn kinase and the B-cell receptor during antigen stimulation.

Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b (P-TEFb) is a kinase consisting of Cdk9 and Cyclin T that releases RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) into active elongation. It can assemble into a larger Super Elongation Complex (SEC) consisting of additional elongation factors. Here, we use a miRNA-based approach to knock down the maternal contribution of P-TEFb and SEC components in early Drosophila embryos. P-TEFb or SEC depletion results in loss of cells from the embryo posterior and in cellularization defects. Interestingly, the expression of many patterning genes containing promoter-proximal paused Pol II is relatively normal in P-TEFb embryos. Instead, P-TEFb and SEC are required for expression of some non-paused, rapidly transcribed genes in pre-cellular embryos, including the cellularization gene Serendipity-α. We also demonstrate that another P-TEFb regulated gene, terminus, has an essential function in embryo development. Similar morphological and gene expression phenotypes were observed upon knock down of Mediator subunits, providing in vivo evidence that P-TEFb, the SEC and Mediator collaborate in transcription control. Surprisingly, P-TEFb depletion does not affect the ratio of Pol II at the promoter versus the 3' end, despite affecting global Pol II Ser2 phosphorylation levels. Instead, Pol II occupancy is reduced at P-TEFb down-regulated genes. We conclude that a subset of non-paused, pre-cellular genes are among the most susceptible to reduced P-TEFb, SEC and Mediator levels in Drosophila embryos.

EGFR, HER2, and HER3 contribute to the initiation and progression of human cancers, and are therapeutic targets for monoclonal antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. An important source of resistance to these agents arises from functional redundancy among EGFR, HER2, and HER3. EGFR family members contain conserved extracellular structures that are stabilized by disulfide bonds. Compounds that disrupt extracellular disulfide bonds could inactivate EGFR, HER2, and HER3 in unison. Here we describe the identification of compounds that kill breast cancer cells that overexpress EGFR or HER2. Cell death parallels downregulation of EGFR, HER2, and HER3. These compounds disrupt disulfide bonds and are termed Disulfide Bond Disrupting Agents (DDAs). DDA RBF3 exhibits anticancer efficacy in vivo at 40 mg/kg without evidence of toxicity. DDAs may complement existing EGFR-, HER2-, and HER3-targeted agents that function through alternate mechanisms of action, and combination regimens with these existing drugs may overcome therapeutic resistance.

The differentiation of stem cells is a tightly regulated process essential for animal development and tissue homeostasis. Through this process, attainment of new identity and function is achieved by marked changes in cellular properties. Intrinsic cellular mechanisms governing stem cell differentiation remain largely unknown, in part because systematic forward genetic approaches to the problem have not been widely used. Analysing genes required for germline stem cell differentiation in the Drosophila ovary, we find that the mitochondrial ATP synthase plays a critical role in this process. Unexpectedly, the ATP synthesizing function of this complex was not necessary for differentiation, as knockdown of other members of the oxidative phosphorylation system did not disrupt the process. Instead, the ATP synthase acted to promote the maturation of mitochondrial cristae during differentiation through dimerization and specific upregulation of the ATP synthase complex. Taken together, our results suggest that ATP synthase-dependent crista maturation is a key developmental process required for differentiation independent of oxidative phosphorylation.

The tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 negatively influences endothelial function, such as VEGF signaling and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, and has been shown to influence angiogenesis during tissue ischemia. In ischemic tissues, hypoxia induced angiogenesis is crucial for restoring oxygen supply. However, the exact mechanism how SHP-1 affects endothelial function during ischemia or hypoxia remains unclear. We performed in vitro endothelial cell culture experiments to characterize the role of SHP-1 during hypoxia.SHP-1 knock-down by specific antisense oligodesoxynucleotides (AS-Odn) increased cell growth as well as VEGF synthesis and secretion during 24 hours of hypoxia compared to control AS-Odn. This was prevented by HIF-1α inhibition (echinomycin and apigenin). SHP-1 knock-down as well as overexpression of a catalytically inactive SHP-1 (SHP-1 CS) further enhanced HIF-1α protein levels, whereas overexpression of a constitutively active SHP-1 (SHP-1 E74A) resulted in decreased HIF-1α levels during hypoxia, compared to wildtype SHP-1. Proteasome inhibition (MG132) returned HIF-1α levels to control or wildtype levels respectively in these cells. SHP-1 silencing did not alter HIF-1α mRNA levels. Finally, under hypoxic conditions SHP-1 knock-down enhanced intracellular endothelial reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, as measured by oxidation of H2-DCF and DHE fluorescence.SHP-1 decreases half-life of HIF-1α under hypoxic conditions resulting in decreased cell growth due to diminished VEGF synthesis and secretion. The regulatory effect of SHP-1 on HIF-1α stability may be mediated by inhibition of endothelial ROS formation stabilizing HIF-1α protein. These findings highlight the importance of SHP-1 in hypoxic signaling and its potential as therapeutic target in ischemic diseases.

Post-translational protein modifications, such as tyrosine phosphorylation, regulate protein-protein interactions (PPIs) critical for signal processing and cellular phenotypes. We extended an established yeast two-hybrid system employing human protein kinases for the analyses of phospho-tyrosine (pY)-dependent PPIs in a direct experimental, large-scale approach. We identified 292 mostly novel pY-dependent PPIs which showed high specificity with respect to kinases and interacting proteins and validated a large fraction in co-immunoprecipitation experiments from mammalian cells. About one-sixth of the interactions are mediated by known linear sequence binding motifs while the majority of pY-PPIs are mediated by other linear epitopes or governed by alternative recognition modes. Network analysis revealed that pY-mediated recognition events are tied to a highly connected protein module dedicated to signaling and cell growth pathways related to cancer. Using binding assays, protein complementation and phenotypic readouts to characterize the pY-dependent interactions of TSPAN2 (tetraspanin 2) and GRB2 or PIK3R3 (p55γ), we exemplarily provide evidence that the two pY-dependent PPIs dictate cellular cancer phenotypes.

The Bcr-Abl protein is an important client protein of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90). We evaluated the inhibitory effects of the HSP90 ATPase inhibitor AUY922 on 32D mouse hematopoietic cells expressing wild-type Bcr-Abl (b3a2, 32Dp210) and mutant Bcr-Abl imatinib (IM)-resistant cell lines. Western blotting results of fractions from gel filtration column chromatography of 32Dp210 cells showed that HSP90 together with Bcr-Abl, Jak2 Stat3 and several other proteins co-eluted in peak column fractions of a high molecular weight network complex (HMWNC). Co-IP results showed that HSP90 directly bound to Bcr-Abl, Jak2, Stat 3 and Akt. The associations between HSP90 and Bcr-Abl or Bcr-Abl kinase domain mutants (T315I and E255K) were interrupted by AUY922 treatment. Tyrosine phosphorylation of Bcr-Abl showed a dose-dependent decrease in 32Dp210T315I following AUY922 treatment for 16h. AUY922 also markedly inhibited cell proliferation of both IM-sensitive 32Dp210 (IC50 =6 nM) and IM-resistant 32Dp210T315I cells (IC50 ≈6 nM) and human KBM-5R/KBM-7R cell lines (IC50 =50 nM). AUY922 caused significant G1 arrest in 32Dp210 cells but not in T315I or E255K cells. AUY922 efficiently induced apoptosis in 32Dp210 (IC50 =10 nM) and T315I or E255K lines with IC50 around 20 to 50 nM. Our results showed that Bcr-Abl and Jak2 form HMWNC with HSP90 in CML cells. Inhibition of HSP90 by AUY922 disrupted the structure of HMWNC, leading to Bcr-Abl degradation, nhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis. Thus, inhibition of HSP90 is a powerful way to inhibit not only IM-sensitive CML cells but also IM-resistant CML cells.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a member of the receptor tyrosine kinase superfamily. The ALK gene is a site of frequent mutation and chromosomal rearrangement in various types of human cancers. A novel chromosomal translocation was recently identified in human colorectal cancer between the ALK gene and chromosome 2, open reading frame 44 (C2orf44), a gene of unknown function. As a first step in understanding the oncogenic properties of this fusion protein, C2orf44 cDNA was cloned and the encoded protein was characterized, which was designated as WD repeat and coiled coil containing protein (WDCP). A C-terminal proline-rich segment in WDCP was shown to mediate binding to the Src homology 3 domain of the Src family kinase hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck). Co-expression with Hck lead to tyrosine phosphorylation of WDCP. Chromatographic fractionation of WDCP-containing lysates indicates that the protein exists as an oligomer in mammalian cells. These results suggest that, in the context of the ALK-C2orf44 gene fusion, WDCP imposes an oligomeric structure on ALK that results in constitutive kinase activation and signaling.

Actin microridges form labyrinth like patterns on superficial epithelial cells across animal species. This highly organized assembly has been implicated in mucus retention and in the mechanical structure of mucosal surfaces, however the mechanisms that regulate actin microridges remain largely unknown. Here we characterize the composition and dynamics of actin microridges on the surface of zebrafish larvae using live imaging. Microridges contain phospho-tyrosine, cortactin and VASP, but not focal adhesion kinase. Time-lapse imaging reveals dynamic changes in the length and branching of microridges in intact animals. Transient perturbation of the microridge pattern occurs before cell division with rapid re-assembly during and after cytokinesis. Microridge assembly is maintained with constitutive activation of Rho or inhibition of myosin II activity. However, expression of dominant negative RhoA or Rac alters microridge organization, with an increase in distance between microridges. Latrunculin A treatment and photoconversion experiments suggest that the F-actin filaments are actively treadmilling in microridges. Accordingly, inhibition of Arp2/3 or PI3K signaling impairs microridge structure and length. Taken together, actin microridges in zebrafish represent a tractable in vivo model to probe pattern formation and dissect Arp2/3-mediated actin dynamics in vivo.

Ephs and FGFRs belong to a superfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases, playing important roles in stem cell biology. We previously reported that EphA4 and FGFR form a heterodimer following stimulation with ligands, trans-activating each other and signaling through a docking protein, FRS2α, that binds to both receptors. Here, we investigated whether the interaction between EphA4 and FGFRs can be generalized to other Ephs and FGFRs, and, in addition, examined the downstream signal mediating their function in embryonic neural stem/progenitor cells. We revealed that various Ephs and FGFRs interact with each other through similar molecular domains. When neural stem/progenitor cells were stimulated with FGF2 and ephrin-A1, the signal transduced from the EphA4/FGFR/FRS2α complex enhanced self-renewal, while stimulation with ephrin-A1 alone induced neuronal differentiation. The downstream signal required for neuronal differentiation appears to be MAP kinase mainly linked to the Ras family of G proteins. MAP kinase activation was delayed and sustained, distinct from the transient activation induced by FGF2. Interestingly, this effect on neuronal differentiation required the presence of FGFRs. Specific FGFR inhibitor almost completely abolished the function of ephrin-A1 stimulation. These findings suggest that the ternary complex of EphA, FGFR and FRS2α formed by ligand stimulation regulates self-renewal and differentiation of mouse embryonic neural stem/progenitor cells by ligand-specific fine tuning of the downstream signal via FRS2α.