MAB302 Sigma-AldrichAnti-Glutamine Synthetase Antibody, clone GS-6

Previous studies of Drosophila flight muscle neuromuscular synapses have revealed their tripartite architecture and established an attractive experimental model for genetic analysis of glial function in synaptic transmission. Here we extend these findings by defining a new Drosophila glial cell type, designated peripheral perisynaptic glia (PPG), which resides in the periphery and interacts specifically with fine motor axon branches forming neuromuscular synapses. Identification and specific labeling of PPG was achieved through cell type-specific RNAi-mediated knockdown (KD) of a glial marker, Glutamine Synthetase 2 (GS2). In addition, comparison among different Drosophila neuromuscular synapse models from adult and larval developmental stages indicated the presence of tripartite synapses on several different muscle types in the adult. In contrast, PPG appear to be absent from larval body wall neuromuscular synapses, which do not exhibit a tripartite architecture but rather are imbedded in the muscle plasma membrane. Evolutionary conservation of tripartite synapse architecture and peripheral perisynaptic glia in vertebrates and Drosophila suggests ancient and conserved roles for glia-synapse interactions in synaptic transmission.

Reactive microglia are commonly seen in retinal degenerative diseases, and neurotoxic microglia responses can contribute to photoreceptor cell death. We and others have previously shown that translocator protein (18 kDa) (TSPO) is highly induced in retinal degenerations and that the selective TSPO ligand XBD173 (AC-5216, emapunil) exerts strong anti-inflammatory effects on microglia in vitro and ex vivo. Here, we investigated whether targeting TSPO with XBD173 has immuno-modulatory and neuroprotective functions in two mouse models of acute retinal degeneration using bright white light exposure.BALB/cJ and Cx3cr1(GFP/+) mice received intraperitoneal injections of 10 mg/kg XBD173 or vehicle for five consecutive days, starting 1 day prior to exposure to either 15,000 lux white light for 1 h or 50,000 lux focal light for 10 min, respectively. The effects of XBD173 treatment on microglia and Müller cell reactivity were analyzed by immuno-stainings of retinal sections and flat mounts, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, and mRNA expression of microglia markers using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Optical coherence tomography (OCT), terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) stainings, and morphometric analyses were used to quantify the extent of retinal degeneration and photoreceptor apoptosis.Four days after the mice were challenged with bright white light, a large number of amoeboid-shaped alerted microglia appeared in the degenerating outer retina, which was nearly completely prevented by treatment with XBD173. This treatment also down-regulated the expression of TSPO protein in microglia but did not change the TSPO levels in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). RT-PCR analysis showed that the microglia/macrophage markers Cd68 and activated microglia/macrophage whey acidic protein (Amwap) as well as the pro-inflammatory genes Ccl2 and Il6 were reduced after XBD173 treatment. Light-induced degeneration of the outer retina was nearly fully blocked by XBD173 treatment. We further confirmed these findings in an independent mouse model of focal light damage. Retinas of animals receiving XBD173 therapy displayed significantly more ramified non-reactive microglia and more viable arrestin-positive cone photoreceptors than vehicle controls.Targeting TSPO with XBD173 effectively counter-regulates microgliosis and ameliorates light-induced retinal damage, highlighting a new pharmacological concept for the treatment of retinal degenerations.

While photoreceptor loss is the most devastating result of inherited retinal degenerations such as retinitis pigmentosa, inner retinal neurons also undergo significant alteration. Detailing these changes has become important as many vision restorative therapies target the remaining neurons. In this study, the rd1-Fos-Tau-LacZ (rd1-FTL) mouse model was used to explore inner retinal change at a late stage of retinal degeneration, after the loss of photoreceptor nuclei. The rd1-FTL model carries a mutation in the phosphodiesterase gene, Pde6b, and an axonally targeted transgenic beta galactosidase reporter system under the control of the c-fos promoter. Retinae of transgenic rd1-FTL mice and control FTL animals aged 2-12 months were processed for indirect fluorescence immunocytochemistry. At 2 months of age, a time when the majority of photoreceptor nuclei are lost, there was negligible c-fos reporter (FTL) expression, however, from 4 months, reporter expression was observed to increase within subpopulations of amacrine and ganglion cells within the central retina. These areas of inner retinal FTL expression coincided with regions that contained aberrant Müller cells. Specifically, these cells exhibited reduced glutamine synthetase and Kir4.1 immunolabelling, whilst showing evidence of proliferative gliosis (increased cyclinD1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression). These changes were limited to distinct regions where cone photoreceptor terminals were absent. Overall, these results highlight that distinct areas of the rd1-FTL central retina undergo significant glial alterations after cone photoreceptor loss. These areas coincide with up-regulation of the c-fos reporter in the inner retina, which may represent a change in neuronal function/plasticity. The rd1-FTL mouse is a useful model system to probe changes that occur in the inner retina at later stages of retinal degeneration.

Photoreceptor degeneration is a main hallmark of many blinding diseases making protection of photoreceptors crucial to prevent vision loss. Thus, regulation of endogenous neuroprotective factors may be key for cell survival and attenuation of disease progression. Important neuroprotective factors in the retina include H2O2 generated by injured photoreceptors, and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) expressed in Müller glia cells in response to photoreceptor damage.We present evidence that H2O2 connects to the LIF response by inducing stabilization of Lif transcripts in Müller cells. This process was independent of active gene transcription and p38 MAPK, but relied on AU-rich elements (AREs), which we identified within the highly conserved Lif 3'UTR. Affinity purification combined with quantitative mass spectrometry identified several proteins that bound to these AREs. Among those, interleukin enhancer binding factor 3 (ILF3) was confirmed to participate in the redox-dependent Lif mRNA stabilization. Additionally we show that KH-type splicing regulatory protein (KHSRP) was crucial for maintaining basal Lif expression levels in non-stressed Müller cells.Our results suggest that H2O2-induced redox signaling increases Lif transcript levels through ILF3 mediated mRNA stabilization. Generation of H2O2 by injured photoreceptors may thus enhance stability of Lif mRNA and therefore augment neuroprotective LIF signaling during degenerative conditions in vivo.

Glial cells can be in vivo reprogrammed into functional neurons in the adult CNS; however, the process by which this reprogramming occurs is unclear. Here, we show that a distinct cellular sequence is involved in SOX2-driven in situ conversion of adult astrocytes to neurons. This includes ASCL1(+) neural progenitors and DCX(+) adult neuroblasts (iANBs) as intermediates. Importantly, ASCL1 is required, but not sufficient, for the robust generation of iANBs in the adult striatum. These progenitor-derived iANBs predominantly give rise to calretinin(+) interneurons when supplied with neurotrophic factors or the small-molecule valproic acid. Patch-clamp recordings from the induced neurons reveal subtype heterogeneity, though all are functionally mature, fire repetitive action potentials, and receive synaptic inputs. Together, these results show that SOX2-mediated in vivo reprogramming of astrocytes to neurons passes through proliferative intermediate progenitors, which may be exploited for regenerative medicine.

Retinogenesis is a precisely controlled developmental process during which different types of neurons and glial cells are generated under the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Three transcription factors, Foxn4, RORβ1 and their downstream effector Ptf1a, have been shown to be indispensable intrinsic regulators for the differentiation of amacrine and horizontal cells. At present, however, it is unclear how Ptf1a specifies these two cell fates from competent retinal precursors. Here, through combined bioinformatic, molecular and genetic approaches in mouse retinas, we identify the Tfap2a and Tfap2b transcription factors as two major downstream effectors of Ptf1a. RNA-seq and immunolabeling analyses show that the expression of Tfap2a and 2b transcripts and proteins is dramatically downregulated in the Ptf1a null mutant retina. Their overexpression is capable of promoting the differentiation of glycinergic and GABAergic amacrine cells at the expense of photoreceptors much as misexpressed Ptf1a is, whereas their simultaneous knockdown has the opposite effect. Given the demonstrated requirement for Tfap2a and 2b in horizontal cell differentiation, our study thus defines a Foxn4/RORβ1-Ptf1a-Tfap2a/2b transcriptional regulatory cascade that underlies the competence, specification and differentiation of amacrine and horizontal cells during retinal development.

Midkine is a heparin binding growth factor with important functions in neuronal development and survival, but little is known about its function in the retina. Previous studies show that in the developing zebrafish, Midkine-a (Mdka) regulates cell cycle kinetics in retinal progenitors, and following injury to the adult zebrafish retina, mdka is strongly upregulated in Müller glia and the injury-induced photoreceptor progenitors. Here we provide the first data describing Mdka protein localization during different stages of retinal development and during the regeneration of photoreceptors in adults. We also experimentally test the role of Mdka during photoreceptor regeneration. The immuno-localization of Mdka reflects the complex spatiotemporal pattern of gene expression and also reveals the apparent secretion and extracellular trafficking of this protein. During embryonic retinal development the Mdka antibodies label all mitotically active cells, but at the onset of neuronal differentiation, immunostaining is also localized to the nascent inner plexiform layer. Starting at five days post fertilization through the juvenile stage, Mdka immunostaining labels the cytoplasm of horizontal cells and the overlying somata of rod photoreceptors. Double immunolabeling shows that in adult horizontal cells, Mdka co-localizes with markers of the Golgi complex. Together, these data are interpreted to show that Mdka is synthesized in horizontal cells and secreted into the outer nuclear layer. In adults, Mdka is also present in the end feet of Müller glia. Similar to mdka gene expression, Mdka in horizontal cells is regulated by circadian rhythms. After the light-induced death of photoreceptors, Mdka immuonolabeling is localized to Müller glia, the intrinsic stem cells of the zebrafish retina, and proliferating photoreceptor progenitors. Knockdown of Mdka during photoreceptor regeneration results in less proliferation and diminished regeneration of rod photoreceptors. These data suggest that during photoreceptor regeneration Mdka regulates aspects of injury-induced cell proliferation.

Degeneration of retinal neurons is an underlying cause of several major types of blinding diseases, and effective therapies remain to be developed. The suppositive strategy of repopulating a degenerative retina with new cells generated onsite faces serious challenges, because the mammalian retina seems to lack the ability to regenerate itself or replace its lost neurons. We investigated the possibility of using a transcriptional factor with proneural activities to reprogram ocular tissue with regenerative capability to give rise to retinal cells. Transgenic mice were generated with DNA constructs that targeted the expression in the retinal pigment epithelium of proneural gene neurogenin1 from the promoter of Bestrophin1, or neurogenin3 from RPE65 promoter. Here we report the presence of ectopic retina-like tissue in some of the transgenic mice, young and aged. The ectopic retina-like tissue contained cells positive for photoreceptor proteins Crx, recoverin, red opsin, and rhodopsin, and cells positive for proteins that label other types of retinal neurons, including AP2α and Pax6 for amacrine cells, Otx2 for bipolar cells, and Brn3A for ganglion cells. The retina-like tissue often co-existed with darkly pigmented tissue positive for RPE proteins: cytokeratin 18, Otx2, and RPE65. The ectopic retina-like tissue was detected in the subretinal space, including two retinae co-existing in the same eye, and/or in the optic nerve or in the vicinity of the optic nerve head. On rare occasions, it was detected in the choroid and in the vicinity of the ciliary body. The presence of ectopic retina-like tissue in the transgenic mouse supports the possibility of inducing retinal regeneration in the mammalian eyes through gene-directed reprograming.

Human coronaviruses (HCoVs) are recognized respiratory pathogens with neuroinvasive and neurotropic properties in mice and humans. HCoV strain OC43 (HCoV-OC43) can infect and persist in human neural cells and activate neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative mechanisms, suggesting that it could be involved in neurological disease of unknown etiology in humans. Moreover, we have shown that HCoV-OC43 is neurovirulent in susceptible mice, causing encephalitis, and that a viral mutant with a single point mutation in the viral surface spike (S) protein induces a paralytic disease that involves glutamate excitotoxicity in susceptible mice. Herein, we show that glutamate recycling via the glial transporter 1 protein transporter and glutamine synthetase are central to the dysregulation of glutamate homeostasis and development of motor dysfunctions and paralytic disease in HCoV-OC43-infected mice. Moreover, memantine, an N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist widely used in the treatment of neurological diseases in humans, improved clinical scores related to paralytic disease and motor disabilities by partially restoring the physiological neurofilament phosphorylation state in virus-infected mice. Interestingly, memantine attenuated mortality rates and body weight loss and reduced HCoV-OC43 replication in the central nervous system in a dose-dependent manner. This novel action of memantine on viral replication strongly suggests that it could be used as an antiviral agent to directly limit viral replication while improving neurological symptoms in various neurological diseases with a viral involvement. Mutations in the surface spike (S) protein of human respiratory coronavirus OC43 appear after persistent infection of human cells of the central nervous system, a possible viral adaptation to this environment. Furthermore, a single amino acid change in the viral S protein modulated virus-induced neuropathology in mice from an encephalitis to a neuropathology characterized by flaccid paralysis, which involves glutamate excitotoxicity. We now show that memantine, a drug that is used for alleviating symptoms associated with neuropathology, such as Alzheimer's disease, can partially restore the physiological state of infected mice by limiting both neurodegeneration and viral replication. This suggests that memantine could be used as an antiviral agent while improving neurological symptoms in various neurological diseases with a viral involvement.

Interactions between vasculature and neurons provide important insight into the function of the nervous system, as well as into neurological diseases wherein these interactions are disrupted. This study characterizes a previously unreported retinal vascular plexus and examines potential sites of neurovascular interaction.Vascular, neuronal, and glial elements were visualized using immunohistochemical markers. The distribution of vascular layers was measured and compared across eccentricities. Intensity profiles were calculated from confocal image reconstructions to reveal the proximity of vasculature to neuronal and glial processes.Retinal vasculature forms a plexus that coincides with the dendritic processes of OFF cholinergic amacrine cells within the inner plexiform layer. Across eccentricities, this plexus comprises approximately 8% of the total length of horizontally running blood vessels in the retina. Processes of Müller glia and OFF cholinergic amacrine cells colocalize with the blood vessels that form the intersublaminar plexus.In the retina, vasculature lacks autonomic control, but shows efficient local regulation. Although the source of this regulation is unclear, these results suggest that cholinergic amacrine cells and Müller glia may interact with the intersublaminar plexus to influence vasomotor activity. This may indicate a key role in modulating reciprocal interactions between neuronal activity and blood flow.